Geophys Res Lett. Building damage is described according to the different levels of damage sustained by buildings in Ch, while damage to infrastructure and agriculture is described for each sector, e.g. For an overview of the historical impacts of lava flows see Blong (1984) and the updated review of Harris (2015). http://dx.doi.org/10.5479/si.GVP.NSEB197610-267020. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci. Residents were reliant upon income generated from tourism, remittances from relatives who had joined the Cape Verdean diaspora, and the local to national level export of vegetables and fruit as well as produce made at the agricultural co-operative within Ch, such as crab apple and quince jams as well as wine (the most important by value). 2005; Felpeto et al. The damage assessment included georeferencing and cataloguing the nature of the damage and making measurements where appropriate, e.g. The tank was transported more than 100m northeast from its original location.
In: Rhodes JM, Lockwood JP, editors. http://dx.doi.org/10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN199212-332010.
2003; Masson et al. JFBDF acknowledges funding from Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia, Portugal, as emergency support immediately after the onset of the eruption, and through project FIRE (contract PTDC/GEOGEO/1123/2014). to Simon Day from Sr. Jose Antonio of Portela Village). These breakouts produced a west-directed flow that destroyed many agricultural fields.
On the other hand, lapilli falls around the north-western vents covered some older lava flows, providing areas that proved suitable for small-scale commercial agriculture (producing apples, quince and grapes) in later years. This will provide a second access (and evacuation) route from Ch and potentially support future redevelopment and rehabilitation of communities. 2). 
Smithsonian Institution. The 20142015 eruption occurred near the start of the dry season (NovemberJuly) and water storage tanks in Ch are normally near full at this time of year; however, Cape Verde was experiencing severe drought in 2014 and many storage tanks were low or empty. In: Squires D (ed) Natural Science Event Bulletin, 1:13. A flows entering through smaller openings and into buildings was limited and consisted of scoria fall from a flow outside the entrance, rather than flow ingress; phoehoe flows by contrast were able to flow through relatively thin openings like doors and windows.
Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland. 
Chapter This pattern has exacerbated dependence on these cash crops and so increased the economic impact of the loss of the wine and jam production facilities in Ch during the 20142015 eruption. Of the approximately 350 buildings in Ch das Caldeiras, around 260 were in areas covered by lava flows during the 20142015 eruption (Fig. Natural hazards and earth system sciences discussions. The eruption ended on the 7 February at about 20:00 (local time) with the cessation of volcanic tremor and explosions. Given the advantages of outward curved walls, convex toward the pressure as in arch dams, this would likely resemble a circular tower with thick and high quality (pre-stressed reinforced concrete or masonry) external walls. For the basaltic phoehoe and a lava flows that dominate at Fogo, the curvature, thickness and short span of the walls of traditional cylindrical buildings, as well as the lack of multiple openings such as doors or windows, seemed to prevent destruction or the ingress of lava into the building interior. In: DREF no. 2014), the physical vulnerability of a structure as in its construction age, quality and type, the material and its orientation relative to flow did affect the level, and perhaps method, of damage or destruction. We are also grateful to Chris Kilburn (UCL), Laura Connor, Jacob Richardson, Chuck Connor and Sylvain Charbonnier (USF) who supported emergency management efforts by assisting in lava flow modelling and flow path and runout estimation during the crisis. We observed many water storage tanks and reinforced concrete roof slabs, because of their high structural integrity relative to masonry walls and because of their position at the top of buildings, intact but transported tens of metres at the top of the flow. In: Sennert SK, editor. An exception was the co-operative facility, where lava had surrounded and partially entered the building, and which suffered a small fire in one part of the building.
In mid-December, new lava flow breakouts occurred to the west of Pico, from breaches on the west side of the main flow channel about 2km from the vent, with small initial breakouts from 9 to 12 December and a large breakout by 14 December (Copernicus 2014; Ferrucci et al. Faria B, Fonseca J. The number of buildings damaged or destroyed by lava flows in the Ch das Caldeiras area during the 20142015 eruption of Fogo volcano in Cape Verde was much smaller (n=260) than at Goma. Fast-moving lava flows during the 20142015 eruption of Fogo volcano in Cape Verde engulfed 75% (n=260) of buildings within three villages in the Ch das Caldeiras area, as well as 25% of cultivable agricultural land, water storage facilities and the only road into the area. a Burial of a traditionally-constructed community centre in Portela, which comprised semi-circular scoria walls up to 40cm thick, with few openings; b Doming of a reinforced concrete slab roof within Portela: the building envelope remained relatively intact but lava flows inundated all of the building footprint to approximately roof height. Replacement mobile communications were in place by the time of our visit to provide temporary mobile phone coverage. The agricultural land covered included most of an area west of Portela village that formed the best land in Ch das Caldeiras for growing a variety of food crops. 
The general assumption to date of binary fragility functions for lava flow hazards means that little consideration has been given to the form of vulnerability variations and fragility functions for buildings and other exposed assets impacted by lava. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/heimaey/heimaey.pdf. The lava flows were, in broad terms, alkaline basaltic in composition (basanites), as in most previous eruptions, and were mostly characterised by a or phoehoe surfaces. Comparison and cross-checking of historical, archaeological and geological evidence for the location and type of historical and sub-historical eruptions of multiple-vent oceanic island volcanoes.
Between Pico and the Bordeira cliffs, there is a flat area called Ch das Caldeiras (plain of craters) formed by ponding of lavas between Pico and the cliffs (Fig. Accessed 8 Mar 2016. Jenkins S, Komorowski JC, Baxter P, Spence R, Picquout A, Lavigne F, Surono. 
In: European Geoscience Union General Assembly. Smithsonian Institution. J Volcanol Geotherm Res. 6, 6 (2017). These were destroyed within the first few days of the eruption as lava flows ignited, felled and buried the poles and lines west and northwest of the vents. for critical or costly assets. This flow covered the very last area of flat ground in Ch das Caldeiras that had fertile soil derived from the 1680AD phreatomagmatic ash, although similar soil is still present on the slopes of Monte Amarelo (that derives its name from the characteristic yellowish-brown colour of the phreatomagmatic ash). A pre-eruption field assessment of the vulnerability of buildings, infrastructure and agriculture on Fogo to the range of volcanic hazards was carried out in 2010. Increased unrest at Fogo in late 2014 lead to progressive raising of the alert level within the established scheme (Faria 2010; Faria and Fonseca 2014) (Table2). The construction quality of the frames and mortar, where present, was variably poor with the cement used as mortar or within the frame often showing large air gaps that would significantly weaken any steel reinforcement bars and the buildings resistance to lateral pressures. The previous section indicates some clear trends that could form the basis for building design concepts. 2001; Rhodes et al. (2016) found that the former sites of Portela and Bangaeira villages are still characterised by high future lava hazard. Williams, RS, and Moore, JG, 1983, Man Against Volcano: The Eruption on Heimaey. Very little infrastructure existed in Ch prior to 2014. In volcanic risk assessment, anything impacted by a lava flow is expected to be completely destroyed so that fragility functions, which relate the hazard intensity to a probability of damage or disruption, are considered binary: lava results in complete destruction; no lava results in no damage (Jenkins et al. Comm. 1). Behncke et al. However, some of the assessed areas have since been impacted by lava during the 20142015 eruption, allowing us to test this assumption. Jenkins, February 2015. In: Scarpa R, Tilling RI, editors.
2015). For example, a number of reinforced concrete roofs were sheared from building walls by the flow and transported within the flow, some for many tens of metres (Fig. While the building suffered damage to the roofing, walls and support beams, the overall structural envelope remained relatively intact. Once the road had been cut by the lava, access to Portela and Bangaeira was gained by a dirt road between older lava flows and the Bordeira cliffs. The flow to the south-southeast travelled a further 1.6km at a much-reduced rate. For the traditional cylindrical buildings to remain standing once inundated with lava, flows must have been diverted around the walls, although we could not find any syn-eruption images of this happening. The formation of this last flow implies that the earlier lava flows, including any internal lava tubes, were inactive by that time and no longer capable of transporting lava to the main flow fronts. Although the effects of droughts since 1950 have been effectively mitigated by food imports, in previous decades large scale mortality occurred in Cape Verde as a result of multi-year droughts; most notably in 1810AD, 1830AD, and from 1941 through to the late 1940s (WorldAtlas 2011). isolation with minor structural damage to one wall, or partial burial with an explosion caused by inundation of the lava. The eruption had a catastrophic impact for the close-knit communities of Ch, destroying much of their property, land and livelihoods.
Vulnerability or fragility functions for areas impacted by lava flows are thus binary: no damage in the absence of lava and complete destruction in the presence of lava.
By the time of our visit, approximately 11weeks after impact, a road had been prepared to allow the family to return and people and donkeys to transport provisions to the building. Rapid calculations of flow length (following Kilburn 1996) using effusion rates estimated from satellite infrared images (Ferrucci et al. Lava flows from the 201415 eruption did not cause many fires, reflecting the minimal use of flammable materials in building construction, a general lack of vegetation, and the efficient removal of flammable building contents and fittings by the residents of most buildings before the lava flows arrived. A borehole to the southwest of Portela supplemented this source, but was covered by the 20142015 lava flows. Smithsonian Institution. 2003;2605:118. These impacts may be divided into 1) Gravitational-mechanical or static load forces; 2) Dynamic-mechanical forces; 3) Permanent inundation by lava; and 4) Thermal and thermo-chemical effects. Blocky flows are associated with more viscous lava and can be tens of metres thick, while phoehoe and a can be produced by chemically identical mafic lavas moving at different velocities (faster in the case of a, at least initially). 2015. http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/278021.
1). 2), where they reached the eastern edge of the 1995 lava flow and split into two flows. It has been inhabited since the mid-19th century, with the main villages of Portela and Bangaeira assuming their present organisation in the early 20th Century (Fernandes and Faria 2015). More damage due to lava flows occurred outside rather than inside Ch das Caldeiras, as lava flows from the southern vents covered fields and houses in the south east of the island (Ribeiro 1960; Pers. Geochem Geophys Geosyst. The remaining buildings were constructed using squared masonry or breeze blocks, around half with and half without a reinforced concrete frame. 2015) and mainly covered lavas from earlier in the eruption. However, the distance of the villages from the vent (~3km straight line; nearly 5km flow path) and the rate of lava flow advancement gave enough warning time for most residents to remove all of the flammable building contents and fittings, including expensive commodities such as gas canisters and diesel generators. Elsevier; Amsterdam, 2015. p. 1746. Google Scholar. Investigating volcanic hazard in Cape Verde Islands through geophysical monitoring: network description and first results. By using this website, you agree to our Geol Soc Lond, Spec Publ. 6a and b).
a Buildings in Ch that were unaffected (yellow symbols: n=90), damaged (blue symbols: n=90) and destroyed (black symbols: n=170) by the 20142015 lava flows; Yellow dashed box shows inset area of b Pre-eruption Google Earth Digital Globe satellite image (9 November 2014) showing the western portion of Portela village and c Post-eruption Google Earth Digital Globe satellite image (3 February 2016) showing the destruction of Portela and subsequent reconstruction of a small number of buildings on the 20142015 lava flows to the west of Portela. Thermal and corrosion damage to metal reinforcement of concrete structures may therefore be significant in weakening of these if they are exposed to hot lava and fumarolic gases for long periods, as may decarbonation and dehydration of cement in extreme heat. The pre-eruption vulnerability assessments forecast complete loss in areas affected by lava flow; however, the thick walls of rubble stone construction were recognised to be particularly resistant to lateral loading from a flow (Jenkins et al. As a result, the potential for explosions from the storage of fuel coming into contact with lava flows was expected to be relatively high.
The flow area south and west of Portela was still cooling and feeding local fumaroles at the time of our field visit in early 2015; limited fumarolic activity continued as late as early 2016. By 2010, a census recorded 697 Ch das Caldeiras inhabitants, but estimates of resident numbers prior to the 20142015 eruption were as high as nearly 1500 (Global Volcanism Program 2014). It is the most active volcano in the Cape Verde hotspot archipelago and lies around 800km west of Senegal in Africa. Masson DG, Le Bas TP, Grevemeyer I, Weinrebe W. Flank collapse and large-scale landsliding in the Cape Verde Islands, off West Africa. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13617-017-0057-6, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13617-017-0057-6. More subtly, our observations indicate that flammable and potentially explosive fuels and other liquids must be removed or else carefully protected from heat (for example in underground tanks) prior to lava flow impact; and that thermochemical impacts such as corrosion of metal objects by hot reactive gases may be an important hazard to otherwise protected buildings and contents. Over the following few days, the lava flow fronts slowed down to less than 1m/h (Worsley 2015), raising hopes that further destruction of the villages could be avoided; however, between 6 and 8 December 2014 the flows advanced and destroyed most (>90%) of the remainder of Portela.
