Compare the resulting values for Rossby number for each storm in each region. NWS JetStream - Tropical Cyclone Structure - National Weather Service In 2006, the eastern North Pacific seemed to constantly have tropical cyclones forming. NO! What is tropical cyclogenesis? 8.3) or the US Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) in Pearl Harbor. Globally, storm surge is the most deadly direct TC hazard.220,223 A storm surge is a large dome of water, 50 to 100 miles wide, that sweeps across the coast near where a hurricane makes landfall. Worldwide animated weather map, with easy to use layers and precise spot forecast. 15. 38. There are four stages of tropical cyclones, which are tropical disturbance, tropical depression, tropical storm and hurricane or typhoon. Nitta, T., 1989: Development of a twin cyclone and westerly bursts during the initial phase of the 1986-87 El Nio. Stage 5 - The End of the Tropical Cyclone Lifecycle: Decay or Extratropical Transition (ET) When a tropical cyclone moves into a . 8.65. Winds were in excess of 200km/h. Ingrid weakened during its passage over the peninsula, emerging into the Gulf of Carpentaria late on 10 March as a Cat 1 tropical cyclone. Operational forecasts of tropical cyclogenesis have been developed on two fronts: daily forecast models and seasonal forecasts of tropical cyclone activity, expressed in terms of storm and hurricane numbers or storm days. The low moved eastwards and deepened with cyclonic status being reached around1200 UTC 21 February when about 100 km south of Willis Island. 2008). Rita had decayed to 18 m s. Fig. where V is the scale speed, L is the scale distance and f is the Coriolis parameter. Challa, M., R. L. Pfeffer, Q. Zhao, and S. W. Chang, 1998: Can eddy fluxes serve as a catalyst for hurricane and typhoon formation? . Issues associated with evacuation include, but are not limited to the following: The vulnerabilities include natural, geographical, and climatic shocks and stresses (e.g., cyclone, floods, storm surge, sea-level rise, geographical position). Tropical Cyclone 02B made landfall in Chittagong, Bangladesh on 29 April 1991 at about 1900 UTC. No even this region can be impacted by tropical cyclones! 8.25. 118. 89. The storm system is likely to move northwestwards and weaken into low pressure. parameter, f. Assuming a reasonable latitude of 15 gives f =410-5. Samsury, C. E., R. E. Orville, 1994: Cloud-to-ground lightning in tropical cyclones: A study of Hurricanes Hugo (1989) and Jerry (1989). Discuss how inner core dynamics can lead to changes in cyclone structure and intensity. Thus, the SH seasonal cycle is out of phase with the NH and generally follows the seasonal monsoon variations (see Section 8.3 for discussion of the large-scale factors governing tropical cyclogenesis). The Bay of Bengal has about five times as many tropical cyclones as the Arabian Sea. Karyampudi, V. M., H. F. Pierce, 2002: Synoptic-scale influence of the Saharan air layer on tropical cyclogenesis over the eastern Atlantic. 99. A study assessing the potential for easterly wave formation in Australia compared to Africa63 found a 26 day peak in the variance of the African monsoon [identified by outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) and low-level winds] consistent with easterly wave activity,64 but no corresponding peak in the Australian data even if the criteria were relaxed. what is a dragon worth in adopt me; how to cash a payable order from dvla. Fig. Track of Hurricane Joan (#11) which weakened as it crossed Central America. With the previous range, a Category 4 hurricane at 115kt would be rounded to 130mph; which is Category 3 in mph. Liebmann, B., H. H. Hendon, and J. D. Glick, 1994: The relationship between tropical cyclones of the western Pacific and Indian Oceans and the MaddenJulian oscillation. You may also take a quiz and email your results to your instructor. Meteorologists have divided the development of a tropical cyclone into four stages: Tropical disturbance, tropical depression, tropical storm, and full-fledged tropical cyclone. 3.21b). Tropical disturbance. 8.63). The concept of inertial stability can be illustrated by a thought experiment in a swimming pool. The frictionally-slowed surface wind speed is less than the gradient wind expected from the observed pressure gradient (Section 8.2.3.1). The motion of features is the result of interpolation of images, advection, and rotation as the interpolated images are blended. As we have discussed, the key to a storm maintaining its current intensity or intensifying further is the maintenance of the deep convection surrounding its core. III: Baroclinic vortices. One message comes out of all of these genesis mechanisms: each component are spread across a range of levels and departments of government, varying by country and region; no single tropical cyclone strategy operates. Fig. (b) Enhanced IR images of waves and MCSs between 1200 UTC 5 Sep and 0000 UTC 13 Sep 2006. the Gulf Stream). This increase in the central pressure leads to weaker pressure gradient and weaker gradient wind. Washington Post (26 May 2006). 169. Tropical Disturbance INVEST 99S that spawned Eloise was first noted on 14 January as it entered a region marginally favourable to development. Hence, the barotropic PV reduces to the vertical component of the absolute vorticity . However, the high vorticity in tropical cyclones reduces the Rossby radius and enables tropical cyclones to last for many days and even weeks. IR-BD enhanced images of Tropical Cyclone Indlala (2001) with estimated central pressure of (a) 994 hPa, (b) 984 hPa, (c) 967 hPa, and (d) 927 hPa. The MJO cycle is identified here by the 200 hPa velocity potential anomalies (10, Fig. enhanced lower troposphere relative vorticity, weak vertical shear of the horizontal winds at the genesis site, and. 218. 226. 8. 206. Introduction to Tropical Meteorology, Ch. 8: Tropical Cyclones is the expectation that the tropical storm will continue to develop from The coastal region was devastated by peak 1minute averaged surface winds in excess of 72 m s-1 (260 km h-1), 898 hPa minimum pressure (SaffirSimpson Category 5), and a 6.1 meter storm surge. 113. Now compare these values with the order of magnitude analysis given above and decide whether the fundamental balances in each region would change with changing intensity. An example of post-landfall structural changes. For example, a storm that evolves as described above will be reclassified as "extratropical" by the US National Hurricane Center with no requirement for reintensification. 8.32), we solve for : So we see that approximately one third of the available heat energy Tropical cyclones are among the more prolific rainfall producers and the land surface response to heavy rainfall is one of the deadliest aspects of tropical cyclones. The blue line represents all tropical cyclones (surface winds greater than 17 m s. NHC Summary of 2005 Atlantic Hurricane Season. 8.63). Extratropically transitioning tropical cyclones evolve from this structure to become fast moving (>10 m s-1) systems, often resulting in a greatly expanded area of gale force winds. Simpson, R., R. A. Anthes, and M. Garstang, Eds., 2002: 221. beginner cfop algorithms pdf; tbo obituaries hillsborough county [9] Nearly all trees on the island were leveled by 290km/h (180mph) wind gusts. Schematic of the asymmetric (NH and SH) tropical cyclone calculated for a symmetric tropical cyclone in a more realistic environment with a nonzero relative vorticity gradient that results in gyres that include Coriolis and relative vorticity effects. The warm waters of the "Northwest Shelf" provide the ideal environment for continued intensification of these storms until they either encounter the midlatitude westerlies (and their associated strong vertical wind shear) or a dry air intrusion from the Australian deserts disrupts the convective organization of the system. 197. If waves with wavelengths near 2000 km are continuously generated upstream (to the east in the deep tropics), their energy will accumulate in the monsoon confluence zone. All rights reserved. Advection of the storm by its environment can be approximated by the average wind through a deep layer of the atmosphere (the deep-layer mean wind).204,205,206 When calculating this wind from standard pressure level data, it is necessary to weight each level by the mass of the layer it represents. Super Typhoon Hagibis | Royal Meteorological Society They are classified as follows: anticyclones,tornados,dustdevil and thunderstorms Question #301638. As a result, waves generated during ET can be much larger than the waves generated by a TC. Tropical disturbances require external forcing to be sustained. 234. 167. Lea, A. S., M. A. Saunders, 2006: How well forecast were the 2004 and 2005 Atlantic and US hurricane seasons? 8.44, b and d) and is the preferred channel for observing tropical cyclone structure and intensity changes. This article is about the 2013 hurricane. At its most intense, the minimum sea level pressure of Tip was measured at 870 hPa at 0353 UTC on 12 October 1979.27 The estimated maximum sustained (1-minute) surface wind was 85 m s-1 (305 km h-1). stage of development of tropical cyclone florence. Part II: Forecasting its variability. As the storm moved across the Gulf towards the Iranian coast, it weakened to a tropical storm with winds of around 23 m s-1 (45 kts, 83 km h-1, or 51 mph,) at landfall on 7 June 2007. A tropical cyclone will not develop instantaneously: some intermediate, weaker disturbance is needed to provide the "seed" from which a tropical cyclone can develop (Fig. Tropical cyclones cannot suddenly appear on their own. It has a fully developed eye in the centre and its structure is quite stable above an ocean. Observational studies40,214 of the western North Pacific and North Atlantic document binary storm interactions on average 1.5 times per year for the western North Pacific and once every three years214 in the North Atlantic (for the period 1945-1981). 8.42. Tropical Disturbance: A seasonal forecast model must demonstrate skill against a "no skill" baseline prediction to be useful.200 The most common no skill forecast used for operational weather forecast models is a combination of climatology and persistence (known as CLIPER). Significant roofing loss and structural damage. Mature Stage. Fig. RESEARCH TOPIC: THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPACT OF TROPICAL CYCLONES Guidelines for discussion Choose ONE of the following Tropical cyclones: Hagibis Nivar Ingrid Florence Eloise The desktop research must centre around ONE of the tropical cyclones. 148. Ingrid was a category 1 hurricane A storm tide swept boats about 100 metres inland and several metres above the usual high tide mark. Recalling that a degree of latitude is roughly 100 These relationships with seasonal tropical cyclone activity (defined by any of total number of named storms, named storm days, hurricanes or hurricane days) were explained in terms of changes in the tropical Atlantic atmosphere and ocean circulations that modified the necessary conditions for tropical cyclogenesis (Section 8.3.1). Tropical cyclone - Location and patterns of tropical cyclones (Type your answer in box.). They are classified as follows: Tropical Depression: A tropical cyclone with maximum sustained winds of 38 mph (33 knots) or less. Bosart, L. F., J. Most tornadoes are reported in the outer rainbands226 where vertical wind shear is favorable. The heat and moisture fluxes and the potential energy comprise the moist static energy of the air (Chapter 5, Section 5.2.3). While the SAL may inhibit development of African easterly waves into tropical storms,152 the waves have been proposed as transportation for Saharan dust158 and so may be implicated in their own demise! The conclusion of the tropical cyclone is that it has the potential to cause significant damage to life and property and should be taken seriously. [Available at. Fig. Cyclone Sidr was a category4 cyclone, yet deaths numbered a few thousands232 instead of the hundreds of thousands during past cyclones of similar magnitude. Photograph taken by Jenni Evans from the NOAA WC-130 mission flying into Ivan the night before it made landfall on the Gulf of Mexico coast. [1] This was confirmed by a Hurricane Hunters flight indicating the presence of a closed low-level circulation. 93. 8.8). The CPS has been proposed as a metric for evaluating storm structure forecasts.36. However, the largest confirmed loss of life due to a hurricane in the Western Hemisphere was due to The Great Hurricane of October 1780, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of about 22,000 people, with around 9,000 lost in Martinique, 4,000-5,000 in St. Eustatius, and over 4,300 in Barbados.40 Thousands of deaths also occurred offshore. Fig. , . . (Type your response in the box below.). Thus, the thermal wind represents the vertical wind shear of the geostrophic wind. Tropical cyclones are one of the biggest threats to life and property even in the formative stages of their development. How's the weather where you are? 201. 8.52), the most favorable situation for a storm to survive through ET is one in which the storm has either strong "tropical" support for development or strong baroclinic development supportor sometimes both.124. 21. 8.78.11). (Note: The storm categories above are as defined by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology,[2] and differ from those used in the United States. 8.3. Related pages. has occurred when the tropical storm has become self-sustaining and can novavax vaccine omicron efficacy. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE MID-LATITUDE CYCLONE: Initial stage Pressure differences exist between the warm tropical air and cold polar air resulting in a pressure gradient (around polar front) Due to a disturbance in winds high in the atmosphere or mountain ranges a wave forms A cell of low pressure begins Mature stage Part of the record-breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season, which included three of the ten most intense Atlantic hurricanes ever in terms of barometric pressure (along with #4 Exploiting the uniqueness of the soloMERTM technology for the development of next-generation, super-potent drug modalities for chronic autoimmune inflammation diseases, and beyond - April 2022 Opportunities and Challenges in Early-Stage TB Drug Discovery: Targeting DNA Replication as a Case Study - April 2022 Transcribed image text: RESEARCH TOPIC: THE DEVELOPMENT AND IMPACT OF TROPICAL CYCLONES Guidelines for discussion Choose ONE of the following Tropical cyclones: Hagibis Nivar Ingrid Florence Eloise The desktop research must centre around ONE of the tropical cyclones. 8.43. Tropical Storm Ingrid was a weak tropical storm that existed from September 12 - 17, . Radial profile of rotational winds for a theoretical tropical cyclone and the variations in this profile due to intensity, strength, and size changes. The flight track is marked by airplane icons. Easterly waves are well-defined wave perturbations with periods of roughly 35 days and spatial scale about 1000 km. Charney, J. G., A. Eliassen, 1964: On the growth of the hurricane depression. 8.7. Liu, K.-., M. L. Fearn, 1993: Lake-sediment record of late Holocene hurricane activities from coastal Alabama. At its southern end, this Saharan boundary layer air is bounded by the African Easterly Jet, which has peak amplitude of 1025 m s-1 near 700 hPa (Fig. 8.2.2 Stages of a Typical Tropical Cyclone Lifecycle The key stages in the lifecycle of a typical tropical cyclone are incipient disturbance, tropical storm, tropical cyclone (hurricane, typhoon), and possibly severe tropical cyclone (major hurricane, supertyphoon). Assign a T or "tropical" (T No. Eyewall replacement cycles and TC intensity, Inner core features and links to intensity, Observing 3-D structure from remote sensing, Dvorak enhanced IR technique for estimating intensity, Catarina (2004): Rare South Atlantic Tropical Cyclone, Intraseasonal or sub-seasonal influences on TC occurrence, Saharan Air Layer: Impacts and Monitoring, Table 8.3, List of organizations doing seasonal forecasts, Why tropical cyclones move westward and poleward even without steering flow, How tropical cyclones move relative to each other, the Fujiwhara Effect, Flooding and midlatitude trough interaction, Most deadly tropical cyclones, Bay of Bengal, Summary of mitigation issues, concerns, and lessons learned, Twin NH, SH formation from Equatorial Rossby waves, http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/sshws_table.shtml?large], http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/108864.pdf, http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EDIS-7BHM45?OpenDocument&rc=3&emid=TC-2007-000208-BGD, http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/YSAR-799NYQ?OpenDocument, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. 126. A 2.7 m storm surge hit the . 81. Operational centers require a consistent definition peak surface wind speed to decide when a system has become a tropical storm, but this is not always the most helpful definition for explaining the storm evolution. Fig. Image Courtesy : upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/India_relief_location_map.jpg Formation of tropical cyclones. 182. The SST range plotted is from 1535C. Kerry received his doctorate from MIT in 1978, then joined the faculty of UCLA. Cloudy? 8.52).124. (Image courtesy of Mr. Michael Bell and Dr. Wen-Chau Lee). It comes as the country deals with a second cyclone, called Kevin, bears down on the country. A list of the RSMCs and TCWCs as well as webpage links to these centers is given in Table 8.1. Increased evaporation due to the strengthening surface vortex enhanced the convection and led to the intensification of Danny into a hurricane. 130. Photograph of the sloping eyewall of Hurricane Ivan (2004). All other factors being equal, the TC weakens when an outer eyewall forms; some of the moisture and momentum is taken from the existing eyewall, which dissipates. Tropical cyclone formation from a subtropical storm requires that a deep warm-cored cyclone is created from a shallow, mid-level vortex (coldcored in the lower-troposphere).16,66,67,69 The process of "tropical transition" of the subtropical cyclone into a tropical cyclone (Fig. 8.67. 8.10). His theory of tropical cyclone potential intensity has provided a framework for considering the impacts of climate change on tropical cyclones. Fig. 8B3.2).83, A recent innovation, entitled, The Morphed Integrated Microwave Imagery at CIMSS (MIMIC) developed by Anthony Wimmers and Chris Velden of CIMSS, tries to fill the microwave temporal gap.108. Favorable conditions allowed it to attain hurricane status on September14, and the next day Ingrid attained peak winds of 140km/h (85mph). An explosion of research in the 1990s131 has expanded this field of research across all affected basins. 233. For a tropical cyclone, the horizontal winds dominate the flow and the inertial stability is defined by: where, is the relative vorticity, fo is the local Coriolis parameter (a constant at the center of rotation), and v/r is the relative angular velocity. Land use also matters: all else being equal, a heavily built-up or forested area will have a larger frictional effect than a swampand evaporation of moisture from the swamp may delay weakening or even cause the storm to temporarily reintensify.37 A storm is generally modified differently by passage over an island compared to a continental land mass. How do i lose weight fast? In 1948, Palmn86 explained the 26-27C lower SST bound for tropical storm formation in terms of the boundary layer equivalent potential temperature (e) needed to sustain tropical deep convection. Merrill, R. T., 1988: Environmental influences on hurricane intensification. This PV gradient reversal satisfies the Charney-Stern condition for dynamic instability.58. Topographic enhancement of the storm rainfall compounded the flooding in Muscat. Franklin, J. L., M. L. Black, and K. Valde, 2003: GPS dropwindsonde wind profiles in hurricanes and their operational implications. 28. Yet, Japan suffered a total of ten landfalls and the US state of Florida had three landfalls and suffered the effects of a fourth storm that made landfall in the adjacent state of Alabama (Box 89). itchy skin after drinking alcohol / ace landscapes kilbirnie / ace landscapes kilbirnie The likelihood of ET for an individual storm depends on (i) the structure and intensity of the tropical cyclone itself, (ii) its thermodynamic environment (convective forcing), (iii) the structure of the midlatitude trough (especially the spatial extent and strength of its associated vertical wind shear) interacting with the tropical cyclone, and (iv) the relative location of the tropical cyclone in the trough.126,132, Almost 50% of tropical cyclones making landfall in the North Atlantic undergo ET, with the northeast United States/Canadian Maritimes (12 storms per year) and western Europe (once every 10-20 years) being most vulnerable.124 Ten typhoon landfalls in Japan and five in China during 2004 recently emphasized the susceptibility of higher latitude Asian nations to ET (Box 8-9). II. The extreme waves arrived only shortly before the main center of the storm. [37], Because of the severe damage caused by the storm in Mexico, the name Ingrid was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization, and will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane. Some roof and structural damage. , i) () () () () , Which of the following is the correctorder of 5 levels of maturity?A.Simplified, Scaled, Selfoptimized,Synergized, SiloedB.Siloed, Simplified, Synergi Combined infrared and SSM/I satellite image for Tropical Invest 96L, the disturbance that became Hurricane Rita (2005). Eloise started as tropical depression in the central portion of the southwest Indian Ocean on 1/16/21 then became a tropical storm on 1/17/21. Fujiwhara, S., 1921: The natural tendency towards symmetry of motion and its application as a principle of meteorology. If the area of thunderstorms in a tropical disturbance organizes in such a way that a rotation develops and winds become strong (20 knots or 37 km/h), the system is upgraded to a tropical depression and it is given a number. Interestingly, the ratio between these two wind speeds varies with radius: gradient wind balance operates10,11 inside the radius of maximum winds; winds near the eyewall are about 90% of the gradient wind expected there; and winds outside the eyewall are an even lower percentage of the local gradient wind. Fiorino, M., R. L. Elsberry, 1989: Contributions to tropical cyclone motion by small, medium and large scales in the initial vortex. Merrill, R. T., 1984: A comparison of large and small tropical cyclones. Manuel was responsible for majority of the overall effects, although Ingrid still left an estimated MXN$20billion (US$1.5billion) in estimated economic losses, according to AON Benfield; insured damages totaled MXN$3billion (US$230million). Take a quiz and email your results to your instructor. 5? e From a forecasting perspective, "landfall" does not occur until the center (minimum pressure and winds) of the tropical cyclone has crossed the coast (Avila, pers. Relatively few tropical cyclones reach this status, characterized by peak sustained surface winds in excess of 50 m s-1 (Box 8-2, Fig. ET is mostly likely off the Western Australian coast (the eastern South Indian Ocean) in November, April and May, the monsoon transition months there.135 Finally, there are not strong indications for ET in the western South Indian Ocean off Africa or in the North Indian Ocean. 8.37). You can specify conditions of storing and accessing cookies in your browser. Cyclone Ingrid - Wikipedia Molinari, J., D. Knight, M. Dickinson, D. Vollaro, and S. Skubis, 1997: Potential vorticity, easterly waves, and eastern Pacific tropical cyclogenesis. A. Bartlo, 1991: Tropical storm formation in a baroclinic environment. happened on 12 November 1970 when the storm now known as the The IR information, when combined with microwave image data, is being used to create an objective index to calculate the probability of secondary eyewall formation. The pre-Helene vortices appear to amplify over the continent within the AEW structure, a strong vortex emerges from the continent, and tropical cyclogenesis occurs soon after. Using satellite remote sensing techniques, describe how you could detect changes in the intensity and structure of tropical cyclones. Research in the IDM is led by over 34 independent principal investigators in the basic, clinical and public health sciences, and has a strong translational focus. Can tropical cyclogenesis occur without an incipient disturbance? In the last 10 to 15 years, a much broader range of pathways to tropical cyclogenesis have been recognized. 181. The suggestion is that the convectively active phase of the MJO may create a large scale environment in the eastern North Pacific conducive to tropical cyclogenesis even in the absence of upstream contributors148 (e.g., easterly waves). Part I: Mean vortex structure and maximum intensity estimates. PM Kalsakau in cyclone-ravaged Vanuatu declares emergency as new storm Another multi-year modulator of interannual tropical cyclone activity is the Quasi Biennial Oscillation of the stratospheric zonal wind (Fig. 8.28). 5) or undergo extratropical transition. Maximum flashes are occurring in rainbands to the northeast of the eye, which is over central Florida. Sample identification of the Dvorak eyewall pattern, curved band pattern, and CDO. Strong vertical wind shear [>1015ms1 over 850-200 hPa] is often observed to weaken a developing tropical cyclone through suppression of its core convection. It formed on September 12 in the Gulf of Mexico from a broad disturbance that also spawned Manuel in the eastern Pacific. In this scenario, global climate change combined with the cooling then warming due to the temporal variation in sulfate aerosols through the course of the 20th Century governed the evolution of Atlantic Ocean temperatures.193 This global change (nonAMO) interpretation of Atlantic SST variations raises such fundamental questions as "What is the role of tropical cyclones in the climate?" 8.54). The official death toll from this storm was 138,000 people. Temperatures hit -38C as 'bomb cyclone' weather event sweeps US Thus, a storm that is contracting and increasing in intensityd will rapidly increase its inertial stability, increasing its resistance to horizontal forcing by external weather systems.33,34 Also, for a given radius and latitude, as wind speed increases the inertial stability at that location increases. Something went wrong. 217. 13. 8.15) critically influence the subsequent distribution of significant weather due to that tropical cyclone. This gives us the characteristics of the moist adiabatic outflow of the Carnot engine (Fig. The interaction led to the development of a lee trough and a secondary vorticity maximum that propagated downstream with period about 5 days.21 Both the lee trough and secondary vorticity maximum are potential locations for tropical cyclogenesis.57 Thus, development of this lee trough can serve a similar role in genesis to the monsoon confluence zone of the western North Pacific. It can be identified on satellite imagery as a clear region with widely scattered, small convective cells. The correspondence between monsoonal rains (drought) over the Sahel region of West Africa, circulation changes in the tropical Atlantic188 and enhanced (reduced) incidence of intense Atlantic hurricanes159,166,189 provides evidence of the link between African easterly wave activity and intense hurricane activity in the basin on multidecadal timescales. Conversely, a midlatitude storm has its strongest winds aloft (typically near the tropopause); using Equation (5) again, these systems can be shown to be "coldcored" in the upper troposphere. 8.8. Animation of MRG wave and weakening Tropical Cyclone 05A. Extratropical transition is described in terms of structural changes, preceding mechanisms, and impact on high latitudes. Weissman, D. E., M. A. Bourassa, and J. Tongue, 2002: Effects of rain rate and wind magnitude on SeaWinds scatterometer wind speed errors.
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